E-mail David Christopher Lane
directly at dlane@weber.ucsd.edu
Author: David Christopher Lane Publisher: Garland Publication date: 1994
E-mail David Christopher Lane
directly at dlane@weber.ucsd.edu
I
want to go back to the home base now.
Chapter Five GURUS, SWAMIS, AND VEGETARIANISM The Influence Of Indian Religions On The Vegetarian Movement Of North America Despite the fact that scholars have documented the influence of Indian philosophy on the growth of new religious groups in the United States, little work has been done on studying the influences that Indian religion has had on the increasingly popular vegetarian movement in North America. Although it may not be readily apparent, major food corporations, health food stores, restaurants, and soft drink companies, have been directly influenced by Eastern philosophy. This exploratory article will examine the various lines of influence that several modern Indian sects, such as ISKCON, Self-Realization Fellowship, Radhasoami Satsang, 3HO (Yogi Bhajan), and Siddha Yoga Foundation, have had on transforming American eating habits. Specific attention will be placed on identifying the ways in which the philosophy of vegetarianism, as espoused almost uniformly by these Indian sects, gets incorporated into the secular mainstream of everyday life. The Vegetarian Movement: Defining a Philosophical Network of Individuals, Groups, and Ideas It is difficult to precisely define the vegetarian movement since no such entity, per se, exists. Rather, what does exist is a network of individuals and groups--each with varying religious and political ideologies--which share one common ideal: abstaining from meat eating. However, even this definition betrays the complexity of the subject, since there are various kinds of vegetarians, ranging from: 1) lacto-ovo vegetarians (those who eat milk products and eggs, but no animal flesh); 2) lacto vegetarians (those who take milk, but not eggs and meat); 3) vegans (those who abstain from all kinds of animal products, including milk, eggs, soap, leather, etc.); to fruitarians (those who do not even eat plants, but subsist only on fruits and nuts). See Peter Burwash's Vegetarian Primer (New York: Atheneum, 1983), "The Myth of Vegetarianism," wherein he writes: "There are many types of vegetarians (I've seen a list of as many as 200 different permutations!), but the three most common types, making up 95 percent of all vegetarians, are vegans, lacto-vegetarians, and lacto-ovo-vegetarians." (page 10) Thus, arriving at a precise and accurate definition of the vegetarian movement is filled with difficulties right at the outset. This is even more evident when one considers the fact that there are several million people in the United States who regard themselves as vegetarians because they do not eat red meat even though they still partake of chicken, fowl, and fish. The word vegetarian means different things to different people, and thus is more of a catch-phrase than an accurate categorization. In sum, vegetarianism has a broad spectrum of eating possibilities--ranging from non red-meat eater to fruitarian. Prior to 1800, vegetarians were known as Pythagoreans or flesh-abstainers. It was only in the early 1840's that the label vegetarians became coined and popular among religious and secular groups who did not eat meat. In fact, the first organized vegetarian movement did not commence until 1809 when the Vegetarian Bible Christian Church was founded in Manchester, England. My information is based upon Judith C. Dyer's excellent book, Vegetarianism: an annotated bibliography (Metuchen, New Jersey: Scarecrow Press, 1982). It was some thirty-eight years later when the Vegetarian Society was formed. Such a late start, though, has not detracted from the growing popularity of vegetarianism (in all its various forms). Today it is estimated that there are between nine and twelve million vegetarians in the United States. Ibid. What were the main factors which contributed to the rise of vegetarianism in the United States? There are many reasons, but most practitioners agree that there are two major motivating factors: health and ethics. See Janet Barkas' The Vegetable Passion (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1975). The first reason, and perhaps the most popular, stems from a long-standing argument about man's ideal diet. For instance, is man's body designed to eat meat or not? If not, then does eating meat contribute to disease and poor health? According to health food advocates the answer is a resounding yes . But this affirmative response is not simply the outcome of a change of eating habits caused by the rebellious 1960's, but traces its roots back to the mid-1800's, with the fledgling health food movement of Metcalfe, Graham, Greenly, Kellog, White, and others. The argument put forth by these early vegetarian pioneers was a straightforward one: meat eating causes too much excitement and over stresses the body. Although some of these pioneers did not abstain entirely from flesh, they all agreed that meat eating should be at a minimum. The impact of the health foods movement, or back to nature movement as it has been called, has had a tremendous impact on the growth of vegetarianism. Unquestionably, the health benefits (alleged or real) of abstaining from meat has been a key factor in changing some Americans' eating habits. Ibid., for more on the health movement. The moral argument against meat eating also has a long and fruitful (pardon the pun) tradition. Dating back to the Greek philosopher-mathematician, Pythagoras, who passionately reasoned against flesh eating as unnecessary bloodshed and violence , there have been a series of religious thinkers who have pointed out the cruelty and injustice of a meat-eating diet. Although not as commercially popular in the United States as the health/natural food argument (most likely because ethical considerations are not as marketable or product oriented), the ethical basis for vegetarianism has continued to gain adherents, especially in light of the proliferation of minority rights movements (e.g., Gay rights). For more on the moral basis of vegetarianism, see R.G. Frey's Rights, Killing, and Suffering: moral vegetarianism and applied ethics (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1983). Connected to these two main arguments, though, are several important historical and political contexts which have both influenced and constrained the viability and continued growth of the vegetarian movement, as such. The first and most significant socio-historical factor is economic, specifically the rise of the meat industry in Europe and America. There are billions of dollars at stake in the food industry and the production of meat and related products accounts for a sizable proportion of the market. Naturally, the meat industry has a vested interest in propagating the virtues of eating animals. The recent television commercials and magazine display ads graphically exemplify this interest: "Meat-- real food, for real people." James Garner is usually the spokesperson for the meat company ads accompanying this slogan. The implication is quite apparent, given Garner's excellent reputation: normal people eat normal food, not merely vegetables. Another contributing historical factor that has had a major impact on vegetarianism is tradition. That is, flesh eating has become part and parcel of popular culture in such a way that a vegetarian is often seen as strange, weird , or kooky --labels which ward off potential converts to the movement. In Europe and America, Christianity and If I may interject a personal note, I can attest to the social awkwardness of being a vegetarian in the midst of meat eaters. I can never forget when I was sixteen years old and I was invited to a birthday dinner for a friend at the Chart House in La Jolla, California. I was a strict vegetarian at the time, but I was so upset by the pressure of the situation (what the parents of my friends might think of me) that I succumbed and ate halibut just to mitigate the uneasiness. No doubt, the problem resided in me, but I suspect that this kind of uneasiness is felt by a number of vegetarians also, who do not have a support group (friends or family) to rely upon. [I should point out that since this incident I have never consciously eaten any type of meat, fish, or egg--even if I did feel pressure to do otherwise.] Judaism have championed the cause of animal subservience and meat eating. Despite a few minority (and usually heretical) sects in both religions which preached abstention from meat (the early Essenes, certain Gnostic sects, Catholic monastic orders, and several Hassidic groups), Christians and Jews have for the most part been extensive meat eaters. Couple religious traditions and popular culture with a growing meat industry and it is no wonder that vegetarianism is only practiced by less than one out of every twenty Americans--a remarkably low figure when compared to India or China where at least one-fourth of the population are vegetarians to some degree or another. Perhaps the most overlooked influence on the vegetarian movement, in all its diversity, in the 20th century is the impact of Indian philosophy and religion in North America. Starting most dramatically with Madame Blavatsky's Theosophy in the 1870's and culminating most controversially with Sri Bhagwan Rajneesh's experimental ashram in Oregon in the 1980's, Eastern philosophy has made several in-roads into the daily lives of thousands of Americans. Arguably, the most visible in-road has been in the area of vegetarianism. The dramatic rise of vegetarian restaurants, health food stores, and commercial goods (ranging from "tempeh" burgers to "veggie" links) beginning in the 1960's and continuing through the 1980's is directly related to the growth and popularity of several Indian religious movements, particularly ISKCON, Self-Realization Fellowship, Siddha Yoga Foundation, Transcendental Meditation, and the Radhasoami Satsang. In the following section, we will outline the influence that these religions have had on America's eating habits. The Philosophical Influence The single most formative idea that Indian philosophy brought to the vegetarian movement was one which had already been preached in the West, but seldom practiced: ahimsa , or non-violence and non-injury to all living things. What made India's contribution significant, however, was that its radical ideas were embodied in living, breathing examples--men like Ramana Maharshi, Parmahansa Yogananda, Swami Muktananda, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, and Kirpal Singh. Thus, Americans were able to witness a vital ethical statement couched not in abstract rhetoric but concrete day to day application. Since eating is such a social affair, turning vegetarian is a significant social act, not without severe reprecussions. The fact that gurus, sages, and even charlatans from India demonstrated their non-violence (or claims to it) by not eating flesh food was quite influential in motivating young and old people to also change their habits. Such a change also made for new conversations and a new attitude--something quite desirable in the late 1960's. When such figures also happened to be famous as well, the effect was tremendous. No doubt, there are thousands of Americans who owe their allegiance to vegetarianism/ahimsa because of the life and work of Gandhi, Yogananda, and Ramana Maharshi--three men famous not only because of the historical and political exigencies of the time, but because of their singular devotion to a much maligned virtue: kindness and compassion to those who possess less intelligence than human beings. Thus, India's philosophical influence must always be seen as a living export consisting of gurus, sages, saints, and charlatans, who alongside their literary productions (such as Gandhi's and Yogananda's classic autobiographies) serve as dynamic vehicles for cultural change and/or transformation. There are a number of books which have been instrumental in pushing the cause for vegetarianism. Gandhi's My Experiment With Truth and Yogananda's Autobiography of a Yogi stand out as two classics in the field. Hence, India's primary contribution to the vegetarian movement has been philosophical, albeit a living philosophy. It is upon this fundamental groundwork that more commercial ventures, such as 3HO's restaurant chain, have been built. Although groups like Ruhani Satsang, ISKCON, and Self-Realization Fellowship, are as diverse as they are similar, they do share one common theme: vegetarianism . Underlying this tenet, in almost every Hindu, Sikh, and Jain export to America, is the principle of ahimsa or non-violence. The moral basis for vegetarianism permeates Indian culture to such an extent that it is almost literally impossible to avoid it. This is perhaps most clearly seen in the popularity of the concept of karma (action/reaction) in the West, which is widely used--most times inappropriately--to explain a negative situation. Eating meat is not simply morally bankrupt, it is karmically wrong. The technical clarity that Eastern philosophy brings to the moral argument against meat eating is both startling and exceptionally simple. Unquestionably, this elegant simplicity has led to many a convert. For a comprehensive argument against meat-eating which uses karma theory as its foundation, see Charan Singh's numerous letters in Divine Light (Beas: Radha Soami Foundation, 1967). This is not to suggest that modern Indian religions do not advocate vegetarianism for health reasons--they do--but that their emphasis, almost without exception, is primarily philosophical. How this philosophical argument becomes marketable, however, is another issue altogether. Marketing Spirituality: The Emergence of Vegetarian Restaurants With an Indian Religious Influence Although a number of Indian restaurants were owned and operated by religious Hindus and Sikhs by the turn of the century in Canada and America, these were for the most part isolated business ventures started by extended families. Apparently, it was not until Parmahansa Yogananda came to the United States in 1920, that a major restaurant was opened by a Hindu religious group which advocated vegetarianism. This Hollywood cafeteria, which was well known for its "mushroom burger," possibly paved the way for future vegetarian restaurants--with an Indian religious influence--to gain popular acceptance. My information here needs to be checked. Due to limitations of time, it was not possible for me to thoroughly scan the history of vegetarian restaurants. I suggest that future research determine if indeed Yogananda's cafeteria was the first major establishment of its kind. It was not until the 1960's, however, that vegetarian restaurants caught hold of the public's imagination. This was due in large part to the political and cultural changes taking place at the time. Indian religious ideas got popularized through the Beatles' association with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Dr. Richard Albert's (alias Ram Dass ) conversion to Neem Karoli Baba's philosophy, and the general drift toward alternative lifestyles (usually eastern). See Ram Dass' book, Be Here Now , for a popular exposition of Indian philosophy for American tastes. In the last two decades there has been a marked increase in religiously owned vegetarian restaurants: from the cafeteria style Hare Krsna's Govindas to 3HO's Golden Temples . The Hare Krsna movement has been especially successful in establishing low-cost vegetarian restaurants. The only major difficulty they face is their image; the uninitiated suspect (wrongly I should add) that the restaurant is a cover for getting converts. All of these restaurants, almost without exception, do not serve meat. Although it is difficult to gather exact figures on the number of strictly vegetarian restaurants, with an Indian religious influence, there are at least one hundred of them now operating in Canada and the United States, especially in the larger cities such as Los Angeles, New York, Toronto, Vancouver, San Francisco, Santa Fe, and San Diego. Additionally, there are a number of vegetarian restaurants which have been founded by westerners who have established their own new religious movements based upon Indian philosophy. Groups like the Johannine Daist Community and the now defunct Brotherhood of the Source started restaurants which catered to health minded, vegetarian clientele. The overall significance of these restaurants is perhaps greater than one would suspect. First, it allows a marginal eating population to share their principles and habits in a publically approved format--a night out for dinner. Second, it allows potentially new converts to get a taste of vegetarian food and the possibilities/limitations associated with it. And third, it provides a public access where concerned (and not so concerned) individuals and groups can solidify their beliefs, and, in some cases, receive new information about cooking, philosophy, and future gatherings. The future of such no-meat restaurants is bright not simply because of the moral and health reasons supporting vegetarianism, but because they have become more and more accepted as a viable (read: not kooky) eating alternative. Vegetarian Health Food Stores The Community Impact There are now thousands of health food stores throughout the world. California, in particular, has several hundred health food stores, offering a wide selection of non-meat, pro-vegetarian items. Interestingly, a large number of these stores are owned and operated by followers of Indian religion. Stores such as Follow Your Heart and Kirpal's were started because the founders (American in both cases) envisioned a better society, where individuals were served a meatless and healthy diet. The inspiration was Eastern philosophy, specifically the teachings of surat shabd yoga ( union of the soul with the divine, inner sound ) as expounded by Charan Singh and Kirpal Singh--both well known Indian gurus. Kirpal's was a health food store in Del Mar which operated in the mid-1970's. I remember walking into the store and asking the owner if he named his place after the shabd yoga master, Kirpal Singh of Gur Mandi, Delhi. He got quite excited and said, "Yes, but how did you know?" I informed him that I had a great interest in Indian culture and kept abreast of gurus and saints. Coincidentally, it was this gentleman who first informed me that Paul Twitchell, was a one-time follower of Kirpal Singh and Ruhani Satsang. The growth of health food stores, centering on vegetarian items, has been tremendous. There are now large chain operations like Mother Gooch's which have stores throughout southern California. Even smaller stores, like Follow Your Heart , which first opened in Canoga Park, California, have expanded and added stores--like the recent one in Santa Barbara, California. Follow Your Heart was founded by several people. Two of the founders, however, were initiates of Charan Singh of Radhasoami Satsang Beas. A dispute eventually developed between the owners over whether or not eggs should be sold in the store. The non-initiates eventually won and eggs (non-fertile) were put on the shelf. No doubt, these stores have gone a long way in establishing vegetarianism as an acceptable way of life. What is not clear, though, is to what degree health food stores represent a cause versus a symptom. That is, do such vegetarian minded stores generate a change in pre-existing eating patterns, or have the eating habits already been altered so that health food stores are meeting a new need? The answer is most likely a mixture of both, since there appears to be a symbiotic relationship between the eater and the eaten, especially when the latter is subject to market considerations. The health food store also serves a vital community function as well; it is a place to disseminate information, meet friends, establish new contacts and generate plans/goals. As such, it bonds certain kinds of people into a closer knit within the given community. This bonding is important for a number of reasons, not the least of which is the sense of unity and commonality of purpose that is shared in such contexts. In this way, vegetarianism moves away from being simply a matter of individual preference to a socially responsible and socially backed--at least in small segments of the society--activity. In other words, the impact of the health food store among community members is at least as great as the general market's impact on its shoppers. Since health food stores, run and operated by Indian religious converts, have moved into the mainstream, it is no wonder that both vegetarianism and Eastern philosophy has taken hold in America. The fact that New Age thinking has become the media buzz word for millions of yuppies demonstrates to what degree alternative (particularly Indian) concepts have penetrated into popular American culture. See the recent Time magazine cover story on the New Age (1987). Corporate America The Progress of Vegetarianism The single most graphic illustration of how vegetarianism has made in-roads into popular culture is on the supermarket shelves. In almost every major market in America, and certainly in every supermarket chain , there is now shelf space for health food products and non-meat items. Products such as Guru Wha Chews and Health Valley Vegetarian Chili are now available in cities and small rural towns throughout the United States. Corporate America has caught on to vegetarianism and has made it a fast growing industry. Not surprisingly, several major vegetarian food companies, which supply and distribute non-meat products to both health food and supermarket chains, have been started by converts to Indian religion. Organizations such as Lifestream , Fantastic Foods , and Khalsa , for example, were founded by individuals and groups who followed gurus (in particular, Kirpal Singh, Charan Singh, and Yogi Bhajan). Personal interviews with officials of each of the organizations (1978, 1981, 1986). The motivation for these people was not simply a monetary one, but was based upon a profound religious conviction that abstaining from meat is morally right. Hence, these companies contend, why not provide discriminating eaters the option to eat purely vegetarian food? A simple argument, but one which has also turned out to be highly profitable. What is not so apparent to non-vegetarian consumers, though, is that most of the meatless products on the supermarket shelves today were created and designed by individuals and organizations with an overt religious conviction--convictions which are mostly Indian in origin. Such a transcultural influence is intriguing because it goes by unnoticed by most people. America is a melting-pot to be sure, but one that consists of oriental vegetarian ingredients as well. The Indian influence has been marked at each turn by garish publicity and benign neglect. It is this latter aspect which has been the force behind much of America's changing eating habits. For instance, how many God-fearing Baptists would eat Sunshine cookies knowing that the product was changed due to vegetarianism? (Sunshine cookies, crackers, and other assorted items, do not have any animal shortening. This is quite rare, since most major companies use lard and other animal products because they are cheaper. Preliminary reports suggest that Sunshine switched its policy due to the growing health food and vegetarian market.) Or, how many fundamentalist Christians would drink Celestial Teas if they knew that the company backed New Age thinking? Or, more to the subject of this paper, how many people would stop eating Kettle Chips (a very popular brand of potato chips) if they knew that the company executives were disciples of Yogi Bhajan, a Sikh-kundalini yoga teacher? I may be over-stating my case here, but I think it is true that many Americans would avoid products if they knew who owned the companies--especially if they are non-Christian. One is reminded here of the little known fact that the Catholic practice of counting rosary beads originally started with Buddhists monks. One wonders what some nuns would do with their rosaries if they realized that it is a modern adaptation of pre-existing "pagan" ritual. The point, I think, is obvious: religiously motivated (particularly Indian) vegetarianism has succeeded precisely in those areas where it is seen as an American (read: normal) alternative. Although it may begin as a peculiar and Californian exotic export, if a new fashion--eating, dressing, etc.--is to succeed and persist it must end up as an integrated part of pop culture betraying (to some degree or another) its radical or iconoclastic roots. As the saying goes, "Conservatives are those who worship dead radicals." The operative word here is dead ; in our case, I would suggest, it is unknown . Vegetarianism in California, at least, has turned the corner; the rest of the country is still awaiting the outcome of that turn. Conclusion In a sketchy and schematic way we have seen the influence that Indian religion has had on the vegetarian movement in general. What needs to be done, however, is a thorough and comprehensive analysis of how and to what degree Indian religious groups have impacted on American eating habits. Although I have indicated a number of lines of influence--ranging from restaurants to corporate marketing--it is still not clear how much of an influence that has been. Hence, this paper is merely an exploratory study which outlines possible avenues for further research. As such, therefore, it should be seen as a preview, not a final statement, of future studies. It is my hope to expand upon this present work and closely document India's and America's cultural and culinary interchange. I think elaborating on such a link would help clarify how societies adapt and change over time in often subtle and neglected ways. NOTES 1. See Peter Burwash's Vegetarian Primer (New York: Atheneum, 1983), "The Myth of Vegetarianism," wherein he writes: "There are many types of vegetarians (I've seen a list of as many as 200 different permutations!), but the three most common types, making up 95 percent of all vegetarians, are vegans, lacto-vegetarians, and lacto-ovo-vegetarians." (page 10) 2. My information is based upon Judith C. Dyer's excellent book, Vegetarianism: an annotated bibliography (Metuchen, New Jersey: Scarecrow Press, 1982). 3. Ibid. 4. See Janet Barkas' The Vegetable Passion (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1975). 5. Ibid., for more on the health movement. 6. For more on the moral basis of vegetarianism, see R.G. Frey's Rights, Killing, and Suffering: moral vegetarianism and applied ethics (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1983). 7. James Garner was the spokesperson for the meat company ads accompanying this slogan. The implication is quite apparent, given Garner's excellent reputation: normal people eat normal food, not merely vegetables. 8. If I may interject a personal note, I can attest to the social awkwardness of being a vegetarian in the midst of meat eaters. I can never forget when I was sixteen years old and I was invited to a birthday dinner for a friend at the Chart House in La Jolla, California. I was a strict vegetarian at the time, but I was so upset by the pressure of the situation (what the parents of my friends might think of me) that I succumbed and ate halibut just to mitigate the uneasiness. No doubt, the problem resided in me, but I suspect that this kind of uneasiness is felt by a number of vegetarians also, who do not have a support group (friends or family) to rely upon. [I should point out that since this incident I have never consciously eaten any type of meat, fish, or egg--even if I did feel pressure to do otherwise.] 9. Since eating is such a social affair, turning vegetarian is a significant social act, not without severe reprecussions. The fact that gurus, sages, and even charlatans from India demonstrated their non-violence (or claims to it) by not eating flesh food was quite influential in motivating young and old people to also change their habits. Such a change also made for new conversations and a new attitude--something quite desirable in the late 1960's. 10. There are a number of books which have been instrumental in pushing the cause for vegetarianism. Gandhi's My Experiment With Truth and Yogananda's Autobiography of a Yogi stand out as two classics in the field. 11. For a comprehensive argument against meat-eating which uses karma theory as its foundation, see Charan Singh's numerous letters in Divine Light (Beas: Radha Soami Foundation, 1967). 12. My information here needs to be checked. Due to limitations of time, it was not possible for me to thoroughly scan the history of vegetarian restaurants. I suggest that future research determine if indeed Yogananda's cafeteria was the first major establishment of its kind. 13. See Ram Dass' book, Be Here Now , for a popular exposition of Indian philosophy for American tastes. 14. The Hare Krishna movement has been especially successful in establishing low-cost vegetarian restaurants. The only major difficulty they face is their image; the uninitiated suspect (wrongly I should add) that the restaurant is a cover for getting converts. 15. Kirpal's was a health food store in Del Mar which operated in the mid-1970's. I remember walking into the store and asking the owner if he named his place after the shabd yoga master, Kirpal Singh of Gur Mandi, Delhi. He got quite excited and said, "Yes, but how did you know?" I informed him that I had a great interest in Indian culture and kept abreast of gurus and saints. Coincidentally, it was this gentleman who first informed me that the founder of Eckankar, Paul Twitchell, was a one-time follower of Kirpal Singh and Ruhani Satsang. 16. Follow Your Heart was founded by several people. Two of the founders, however, were initiates of Charan Singh of Radhasoami Satsang Beas. A dispute eventually developed between the owners over whether or not eggs should be sold in the store. The non-initiates eventually won and eggs (non-fertile) were put on the shelf. 17. See the Time magazine cover story on the New Age (1987). 18. Personal interviews with officials of each of the organizations (1978, 1981, 1986). 19. I may be over-stating my case here, but I think it is true that many Americans would avoid products if they knew who owned the companies--especially if they are non-Christian. One is reminded here of the little known fact that the Catholic practice of counting rosary beads originally started with Buddhists monks. One wonders what some nuns would do with their rosaries if they realized that it is a modern adaptation of pre-existing "pagan" ritual. 20. As the saying goes, "Conservatives are those who worship dead radicals." The operative word here is dead ; in our case, I would suggest, it is unknown .
